2.5.1. Sex differences
Though turn-taking cues are similar for males and females, one must consider sexual differences in the style of the operation of the turn-taking mechanism.

Sex differences in human interaction are unapparent until about the fourth grade. At approximately this age, society´s influences begin to affect visual interaction.

Environmental influences train women to be more aware of visual cues than men. Women are usually taught to give special attention to dress, colour, spatial arrangements, and so on. The eye contact of women becomes an emotional expression of striving to build social relationships. Women strive by looking more while speaking and being spoken to.

It has also been observed that females look more at people they like but less when giving false impressions to the person in question. When males increase eye contact while talking they are seen to be more active than females with the same amount of eye contact. Apparently, both males and females look more at each other as the physical distance increases between them.²⁴

DUNCAN / FISKE (1977) found out that the mean length of the males´ speaking turns was distinctly longer than the length of the females´ turns.²⁵

The females smiled longer and more often than the males, engaging in smiling for a larger proportion of their nonspeaking time. The picture was similar for laughing: the females laughed more often, even if speaking or in the listening role. The females spent more time gazing at their partner than did the males. On the other hand the males shifted their seat position more than the females did.

Concerning interruptions in conversation, representing a major violation of the turn-taking rule, BEATTIE (1983) stated that in male-female conver- sation men interrupted much more frequently than women.²⁶ In fact, nearely all of the analysed interruptions were initiated by men.

2.5.2. Personal differences
Despite the apparently universal status of turn-taking, it may nevertheless appropriately be thought of as a highly skilled act. BEATTIE (1982) identified groups who are poor in executing turn-taking cues.

For example, one of the major differences between shy people and others is the abilbty of the latter to initiate and structure conversations. The shy individuals have longer pauses between turns and speak less frequently and for a shorter percentage of the time.²⁷

Clinical groups show even more marked effects. Conversations involving schizophrenics show marked disruption in turn-taking skills. The speech of neurotic patients often lacks continuity and is punctuated with too many silences; they fail to hand over or take up the conversation and generally, do little or nothing to control the interaction.²⁸

Even turn-taking and interruption are effected by personality variables. It has been found that extroverts interupt, and speak simultaneously, more often than introverts. In three-person discussion groups the less intelligent subjects interrupted more frequently than the more intelligent subjects.²⁹

Individuals with greater eye contact are seen as attractive and described with favorable adjectives such as friendly, confident, sincere, and mature, while those subjects showing little eye contact are described as cold, pessimistic, defensive, and immature.³⁰

According to BEATTIE one has to acknowledge the importance of differences in turn-taking skills."Given the centrality of the turn-taking mechanism, individual differences in the style of its operation will undoubtedly influence interpersonal perception."³¹

2.5.3. Cultural differences
Effective communication depends upon a shared understanding of behavioural cues. Moreover, the turn-taking rules are probably not generalizable to other cultures, even if they are for our own culture.³²

It has been found that cross-cultural differences in patterns of turn-taking cues like eye behaviour are a potential problem in social interaction. Many visual turn-taking behaviours are different for blacks and whites. For example, there is a tendency for many blacks to avoid looking others directly in the eyes. Or, in one study, when the whites did speak they found themselves speaking while the blacks were speaking because of different interpretations of turn-taking cues.³³

Another finding is that the British do not nod their heads to let you know they understand; rather, they will blink their eyes to let you know they have heard you.